Final+Review

=Use this page to help you review for the Final and HSA. Use the following links to take you section of the course you would like to review.= =Review Games= =HSA Review Questions= Go Here: HSA Questions =Quizlet=
 * 1) =Scientific Method=
 * 2) =Biochemistry=
 * 3) =Cells=
 * 4) =Energy=
 * 5) =Asexual Reproduction and Sexual Reproduction (Mitosis and Meiosis)=
 * 6) =DNA and Protein Synthesis=
 * 7) =Genetics=
 * 8) =Evolution=
 * 9) =Body Systems=
 * 10) =Ecology=
 * 1) 3.1 Biological Molecules and Cell Processes
 * 2) 3.2 Cells and Systems
 * 3) 3.3 Genetics
 * 4) 3.4 Evolution
 * 5) 3.5 Ecology

=Scientific Method =

Experiments must be FAIR. This means: Test one variable at a time. Repeat the experiment several times without changing the procedures. Have a control group that receives no treatment so you have something to compare your test with. Control as many factors as you can that might interfere with your results. Include many items in the experiment. Example: 30 plants and not 2, 100 people, not 10.

**//Steps of the Scientific Method://**
 * 1) **//Problem// –** identify the problem or ask a question. What is it that you need to find out?
 * 2) **//Research//** the problem – check books, scientific papers, and other sources for information for what is already known.
 * 3) Form a **//hypothesis//**– state how the independent variable will affect the dependent variables
 * 4) **//Dependent variable//**: the variable that is measured in the experiment (the height of the pea plants)
 * 5) **//Independent variable//**: the factor that is changed in an experiment (growth hormone)
 * 6) **//Example//**: Pea plants will grow taller (//dependent variable)// if a growth hormone (independent variable) is added to their water.
 * 7) Create an **//experimental design//**to test your hypothesis.
 * 8) List the **//procedure//** and **//materials//**
 * 9) Identify experimental **//controls//** – unchanging factors
 * 10) **//Data//** - **//Observe//** and **//record//** results with **//charts, lists, graphs//**, etc.
 * 11) //Make a chart// to record your data.
 * 12) Graph you data – graph your data after collecting it to give a visual comparison between the independent and dependent variables. Remember that the independent variable data is on the X-Axis and the dependent is on the Y-Axis.
 * 13) **//Analyze to predict//** trends and examine data to see if data supports the hypothesis
 * 14) Draw a **//conclusion//**based on the results of your data.
 * 15) Use data to describe how the independent variable affected the dependent variable
 * 16) Do the results support the hypothesis?
 * 17) Use data to describe whether the results support or do not support the hypothesis
 * 18) **//Extension// –** Report results and offer uses for this information.

A. Inorganic molecules - Do not contain carbon
1. **Water** is polar. It has oppositely charged regions that allow soluble substances to be pulled apart (dissolved). Sugar is polar so it dissolves in water, oil is a lipid and non-polar so it does not dissolve in water. The charges allow water molecules to stick together (cohesion), which creates surface tension that insects can use to walk on water. Water can stick to other things (adhesion) 2. **Minerals** - inorganic compounds that help cell processes
 * pH - Acids are from 1-6 and Bases are from 8-14**

B. Organic Molecules - made of Carbon
1. **Carbohydrates** - source of ENERGY 2. **Lipids** - are Fat - store energy Lipids are **Nonpolar** 3. **Proteins** - make up **Enzymes** Monomer is **amino acids** Made at ribosomes Enzymes speed up chemical reactions. They break down substrates Work best at one optimum pH or Temperature. Enzyme speed will decrease if pH or temperature is increased or decreased. Monomer is a **nucleotide** - made of sugar, phosphate, and base
 * Monosaccharides** - monomers = simple sugar like glucose
 * Polysaccharides** - complex chains of glucose
 * Cellulose** - makes up cell walls
 * Fiber** - helps with diet
 * Phospholipids** - make up cell membrane
 * 4. Nucleic Acids**
 * DNA** holds genetic information
 * RNA** makes proteins


 * 5. Vitamins**
 * //Vitamin C//** is used in wound healing;
 * //Vitamin K//** is used in blood clotting;
 * //Vitamin D//** is used for bone growth

Cells

 * Prokaryotes** - no nucleus, bacteria
 * Eukaryotes** - nucleus, animal, and plant
 * Animal Cells -** Eukaryotes with no cell walls and heterotrophs
 * Plant Cells -** Eukaryotes with a cell wall and autotroph
 * Fungi Cells -** Eukaryotes with a cell wall and heterotrophs (decomposers)


 * Cell Membrane** - plant and animal - regulates what enters and leaves
 * Cell Wall** - made of cellulose- supports plant cell, is rigid
 * Nucleus** - controls cell activities, contains DNA (genetic material)
 * Ribosomes** - make proteins by putting together amino acids
 * Mitochondria** - respiration, energy release, ATP
 * Flagella** - Tail for movement
 * Cilia** - hairs for movement
 * Psuedopodia** - cytoplasm extensions for movement
 * Chloroplast** - Plants only - green pigment chlorophyll, carries out photosynthesis

Made of **phospholipids** Polar heads and non-polar tails Selectively permeable: allows only certain substances in and out Examples: //If a fresh water organism like a paramecium is placed in a salt water solution, the concentration of water on the inside of the cell would be greater than its surrounding environment and water would move out of the cell causing the paramecium to shrink. If a human blood cell was placed in a drop of water, the concentration of water on the inside of the cell would be less than its surroundings and water would move into the cell, causing it to grow and burst// media type="custom" key="24617818"
 * Cell Membrane: Osmosis and Diffusion**
 * Diffusion**: movement of particles (carbon dioxide and oxygen in lungs) from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Cold slows down diffusion and heat speeds up diffusion.
 * Osmosis**: diffusion of water - moves from where there is a lot of water to where there is little water

Energy
All energy for living things on Earth comes from the sun. Only **//green plants//** can trap the sun’s energy on **//chlorophyll//**, a special energy molecule located in the **//chloroplast//** of the plant. The plant uses this energy from the sun to make **//glucose,//** which is **//chemical energy,//** through the process of **//PHOTOSYNTHESIS.//**

Photosynthesis
The plant uses the energy from this light to combine carbon dioxide and water to produce glucose and give off oxygen as a waste. The word equation for photosynthesis is:
 * carbon dioxide + water -->** **glucose (sugar) and oxygen**


 * //Energy//** is stored in a chemical form in the glucose molecule.

Respiration
All eukaryotic cells have **//mitochondria//** that store the energy carrier molecule, **//ATP//**. The energy for ATP is formed when the cell burns food and releases the heat energy that is stored on ATP. This energy is used for all cell processes. The word equation for cellular respiration is:
 * glucose (sugar) + oxygen -->** **carbon dioxide and water**

In **//aerobic respiration//**, the cell uses more oxygen and makes more ATP. In **//anaerobic respiration//**, the cell does not have as much oxygen and it makes less ATP. Some forms of bacteria are still able to make **//Food//** from inorganic chemicals in their environment without using sunlight.
 * Chemosynthesis**

=Asexual Reproduction and Sexual Reproduction (Mitosis and Meiosis)=

**//Asexual Reproduction://** produces large numbers of offspring with the exact genetic information as the parent, but has **//little genetic variation//**.

Bacteria (Prokaryotes) use **Binary Fission** for asexual reproduction Eukaryotes use **Mitosis** for asexual reproduction

Mitosis
Makes two identical cells that have the same number of chromosomes Makes Body cells Used for Repair and Growth

**//Sexual Reproduction://** sex cells, **//sperm and eggs,//** are called **//gametes.//** The gametes from each parent contain half the genetic information for the species and are formed by a special process of cell division called **//meiosis.//** During meiosis, the chromosome number of the cell is divided in half and new cells are formed, each with half the number of chromosomes from the parent cell. When these cells join during reproduction, the new organism gets genetic information from both parents. Sexual reproduction provides **//genetic variation//** because segments of chromosomes sometimes switch places during meiosis (**//crossing over – which makes new gene combinations)//** and also because the new organism has chromosome combinations from two parents.

Meiosis Makes four different cells that have half the number of chromosomes Makes sex cells (Gametes) Used for Sexual Reproduction Crossing over occurs here, which is when chromosomes exchange genes.



=DNA and Protein Synthesis=

DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid - located in the nucleus
Nucleotide - a portion of DNA composed of a base, a sugar and a phosphate 4 bases: A pairs with T C pairs with G DNA is arranged in a double helix - has 2 strands and twists like a ladder. Replication - process in which DNA makes a copy of itself - it unzips and free bases attach following the base pair rule. DNA holds the code for the making of proteins needed for life. Three bases in a row is a codon that codes for one amino acid.

RNA - ribose nucleic acid
4 bases: A pairs with U C pairs with G RNA is a single helix Three types mRNA - copies the DNA code and carries it to the ribosome rRNA - this is what ribosomes are made of tRNA - carries amino acids to the ribosome

See following Sites for help o How Do Cells Make Proteins? – Teachers’ Domain [|**http://www.teachersdomain.org/asset/lsps07_int_cellprotein/**] o Cell Transcription and Translation – Teachers’ Domain [|**http://www.teachersdomain.org/asset/lsps07_int_celltrans/**]

Making Proteins
mRNA makes a copy of DNA. mRNA leaves the nucleus and goes to the ribosome. The ribosome reads the mRNA three bases at a time. This tells the tRNA to bring certain amino acids. The amino acids are put together to make a protein. Example: DNA ATC TCG ATA CGA mRNA UAG AGC UAU GCU Amino Acids Met--Ser--Tyr--Ala

Mutations

 * //Mutations//** is a change in a base in DNA. This changes the gene, which can change the protein. This can have a negative affect on the organism or no effect at all. Mutations can also be caused by environmental factors such as UV light, X‐rays, drugs, or alcohol. Some mutations can cause cancer.

Genetics
Dd = the dominant trait. Must have two to express the recessive trait. The **genotype** of a trait is the gene make-up - DD Dd dd The **phenotype** is the expression of the genes - Tall, short, O blood A **homozygous** (purebred) gene pair has two like genes for a trait - DD or dd A **heterozygous** (hybrid) gene pair has two different genes - Dd or AO blood
 * Allele** is a type of gene
 * Dominant** alleles are represented with a capital letter - D
 * Recessive** alleles are represented with a lower case letter - d, They are often hidden by a dominant gene.

In this punnett square.
 * Punnett Square for one parent with brown eyes and one parent with blue eyes:**
 * G = dominant allele for brown eye color**
 * g = recessive allele for blue eye color**

Genotype%= 25% GG, 25% gg, 50% Gg

Phenotype% = 75% Brown and 25% blue

Sex-linked
The pair of chromosomes that determines the sex of the organism are the X and Y chromosomes. The combination of alleles XX produces a female and the combination of XY forms a male. Some defective traits found in humans are carried on the X chromosome and are passed from mother to son. This means that any defective gene carried by the mother’s X chromosome will be passed onto the son such as colorblindness and hemophilia. Example for colorblindness: XtY. Most defective genes are recessive and therefore have a “good” gene on the other X chromosome in females to dominant over it. Example: **XT****Xt** and no colorblindness would occur in the girls.

Genetic Engineering

 * //Gene Splicing://** uses enzymes to remove a gene from the section of DNA in one organism and place it in another organism for beneficial reasons like the use of a bacterium to produce human insulin.
 * //Cloning://** making an exact copy of an organism
 * Gel electrophoresis:** tool used to separate DNA and identify genetic diseases, relatedness of individuals, and identify criminals

Evolution

 * //Mutations//** creates **//genetic variation//** among members of the same species. Some variations are "stronger".
 * //Natural selection//** is the term used to describe changes in populations of organisms over a long period of time. Over time, organisms that have traits that allow them to survive **//environmental pressures//** such as disease, predators, natural disasters, etc. pass those traits on to their offspring, making a stronger version of the species. Organisms with the traits best suited to their particular environment would be the ones to survive and reproduce. This is sometimes referred to as “**//survival of the fittest.”//** Positive traits would be passed on to their offspring. This increases the number of genes for successful traits in any species.
 * //Adaptation://** is the term used to describe these genetic **//variations//** (traits) that an organism inherits that allow survival in its particular environment.
 * //Variation://** different versions of the same trait found in any species such as hair color, eye color, height, etc.
 * //Fossils://** are preserved remains of ancient members of a species or of extinct organisms that give clues about the organisms of the past.
 * //Homologous Structures://** are **//similarities//** (body structures) in different species that suggest that they may have developed from a common ancestor.

Body Systems

 * //Body Systems: Cells make up Tissues, Tissues make up organs, and organs make up organ systems//**
 * 1) **Excretion – The Excretory System:** getting rid of wastes. Anus get rid of solid waste, bladder gets rid of liquid waste, skin gets rid of waste and lung gets rid of carbon dioxide.
 * 2) **Movement – The Skeletal/Muscular Systems**: **//Bones//** make up the **//Skeletal System//** and **//muscles//** make up the **//Muscular System.//** These systems work together in humans and other animals to provide movement, support, and protection.
 * 3) **Transport ‐ The Circulatory System**: the movement of food and wastes through a cell or through the whole organism. Transport and transport systems are also called **//circulatory//** systems in animals and **//vascular tissue in plants.//** All transport systems are designed to maintain **//homeostasis.//** **//Vascular Tissue//** is found in the roots, stems, and leaves of plants and carries water and minerals up from the soil through the plant to the leaves and carries food made in **//photosynthesis//** to the rest of the plant. **//Heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries//** carry blood with nutrients, oxygen, and wastes through the bodies of animals (humans).
 * 4) **Response/Sensitivity – The Nervous System:** is how an organism **//reacts//** or **//responds//** to its environment. This is how an organism is able to protect itself, how it gets materials for energy, and how it is able to reproduce and carry out other life processes so it can maintain **//homeostasis.//** In humans, the structures that carry out this process are known as the **//nervous system//** and include the **//brain, spinal cord, nerves, and the special senses of smell, taste, hearing, sight, and touch.//**
 * 5) **//Endocrine system -//** //produces// **//hormones//** //that control// **//homeostasis. Homeostasis//** is maintaining a constant internal condition, like temperature and pH.

Ecology
Other organisms (**heterotrophs and consumers**) get their energy from eating green plants through the process of **//cellular respiration//**.
 * //Ecology//** is the study of the interactions between living things and their **//environment//**.
 * //Environment//** is all of the organism’s surroundings in which it has to survive, including both the **//abiotic//** (non‐living) and **//biotic//** (living) factors.
 * The sun provides the energy for life on Earth**. This energy can only be trapped by green plants (**Producers and autotrophs**) in the process of **//photosynthesis//** and converted to **//Glucose//** //(food).//

All the organisms living in an area and their interactions with the biotic and abiotic environments are called an **//ecosystem.//**
 * //Abiotic factors://** are the non‐living parts of the environment that are used as raw materials in photosynthesis and respiration. These raw materials are **//recycled//** in the following major cycles:


 * 1) **Water Cycle:**

2. **Carbon Cycle:**


 * 3. Nitrogen Cycle: Bacteria put nitrogen in the soil**

An energy level is called a **//trophic level//** and is illustrated by an **//energy pyramid.//** The total number of organisms in an energy pyramid is called the **//biomass.//** o **//Primary consumers//** are on the second level and eat plants and therefore are called **//herbivores.//** o **//Secondary consumers//** are the next level above primary consumers (meaning that they eat the primary consumer and can be either **//carnivores//** (meat eaters) or **//omnivores//** (eat both plants and animals).
 * //Energy Pyramids://** show how energy is passed through the environment and that **energy decreases by 90%**. All energy transfer from the sun begins when the green plant traps that energy through photosynthesis. From that point, all other organisms must tap into that energy in order to survive.
 * 1. Producers / Autotrophs (self‐energizing) –** plants are getting energy directly from the sun which they use to **//produce//** glucose and therefore these **//producers//** have the most energy. Producers make up the base of the **//energy pyramid//**.
 * 2. Consumers / Heterotrophs (other energizing) –** “use” food as opposed to making food and are grouped by where they are on the pyramid (who eats what):
 * 3. //Decomposers//** are bacteria and funguses that can’t make food or eat food so they have to live off dead organisms to get energy..
 * 4. //Scavengers//** feed off dead organism and therefore help to break down and recycle both organic and inorganic materials.
 * 5. //Energy –//** The further along the pyramid you go, the less food (and hence energy) remains available. As a rule, only 10% of the energy is passed from each level to the next because the other 90% is used by the organism for life processes.


 * //Food Chains and Food Webs://** are other ways of diagramming the energy pyramid by showing “who eats whom.” It shows the path of energy from organism to organism.


 * //Relationships among Organisms://** are the ways organisms relate or interact with each other in getting food and in survival in general. **//Competition//** among organisms for food and shelter lead to a number of relationships.
 * 1) **Predator/Prey –** one organism hunts and eats another organism.
 * 2) **Scavengers –** organisms that feed off dead organisms.
 * 3) **Symbiosis –** a relationship among organisms that must exist in order for one or both of them to exist. The forms of **//symbiosis//** are listed below:
 * 4) **Mutualism –** both organisms benefit from the relationship
 * 5) **Commensalism** – one organism benefits but does //not// harm the other one.
 * 6) **Parasitism –** one organism benefits and the other is harmed.
 * 7) **Niche –** is the role or “job” of the organism in its environment – what it has to do to stay alive.
 * 8) **Competition –** the “fight” between organisms in an ecosystem for food and shelter.

• **//Ecosystem://** is a large area where organisms live and is characterized by both its physical (abiotic) and living (biotic) factors. Within the **//ecosystem//** the numbers of organisms of the same species are called a **//population.//** The numbers of different populations that live together in this area are called a **//community.//** The specific place in the ecosystem where an organism lives is its **//habitat.//** The varieties (different kinds) of organisms in the ecosystem are referred to as its **//biodiversity.//** The more biodiversity an ecosystem has the more food sources it has and therefore is more likely to be a successful ecosystem.
 * //Succession// –** A cycle of changes in an ecosystem over time from an area where life cannot exist (was never there or was destroyed for some reason) to an area that can support life. **//Succession//** begins with soil formation and then the appearance of grass and small plants. Once the plant is present and photosynthesis can take place, the area can support other small organisms. Then small trees and scrubs appear followed by larger animals. Once the area progresses to large trees, it is an established ecosystem.

=Review Games=

Ecology Millionaire

Ecology Speed Matching

=Unit 2= Chemistry Millionaire

Chemistry Speed Matching

Chemistry Crossword media type="custom" key="21824500"

=Unit 3= Cell Millionaire

Cell Speed Matching

=Unit 5= DNA speed matching

DNA Millionaire

=Unit 6/7= Genetics speed matching

Genetics Millionaire 1

Genetics Millionaire 2

Final Review media type="custom" key="21782808" media type="custom" key="21782926"